With the arrival of GPS in the 1980's, GPS based surveying technology has made airborne surveying and mapping applications practical. Many have been developed, using downward-looking lidar instruments mounted in aircraft or satellites. Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) is an optical remote sensing technology that uses laser pulses to determine the distance to a target and/or gather other information from a target. The distance to an object or target is measured using the time between the transmission of the initial pulse and receipt of the reflected signal. As used herein, the term Lidar or LIDAR includes ALSM (Airborne Laser Swath Mapping), laser altimetry, and LADAR (Laser Detection and Ranging), Lidar differs from radar in that lidar utilizes much shorter wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum are used, typically in the ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared. An example of lidar usage is the NASA Experimental Advanced Research Lidar. In general, it is possible to image a feature or object only about the same size as the wavelength, or larger. The wavelengths are much smaller than radio (radar) systems, and range from about 10 micrometers to the UV (ca. 250 nm). At such wavelengths, the waves are “reflected” very well from small objects, referred to as backscattering. Different types of scattering are used for different lidar applications; most common are Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering and Raman scattering as well as fluorescence.
A laser typically has a very narrow beam which allows the mapping of physical features with very high resolution compared with radar. Suitable combinations of lasers can allow for remote mapping of atmospheric contents by looking for wavelength-dependent changes in the intensity of the returned signal.
For example, B. L. Stann, et al., “Intensity-modulated diode laser radar using frequency-modulation/continuous-wave ranging techniques,” Optical Engineering, Vol. 35, No. 11, 1996, pp. 3270-3278, discloses an adaptation of frequency modulation (FM) radar ranging principles to an incoherent laser radar (LADAR). The LADAR's laser transmitter output is amplitude-modulated with a radio-frequency subcarrier, which itself is linearly frequency-modulated. The subcarrier signal may have a start frequency in the tens to low hundreds of megahertz and a stop frequency in the hundreds of megahertz to low gigahertz. The difference between the start and stop frequency, F, is chosen to establish the desired range resolution R using, inter alia, the equation R=c/2 F, where c is the velocity of light. Light reflected from the target is incoherently detected with a photodiode and converted into a voltage waveform which is mixed with an undelayed sample of the original modulation waveform. After “clutter” is removed, the waveform is processed coherently using the discrete Fourier transform to provide target amplitude and range information.
Similarly, B. L. Stann in “Research Progress on a Focal Plane Array Ladar System Using_Chirped_Amplitude_Modulation,” Proc. SPIE Laser Radar Technology and Applications VIII, Vol. 5086, 2003, disclosed the construction of a 32×32 pixel focal plane array (FPA) LADAR architecture adapted for smart munitions, reconnaissance, face recognition, robotic navigation, etc., using chirped amplitude modulation. Ranging of the LADAR architecture was based on a frequency modulation/continuous wave technique implemented by directly amplitude modulating a near-IR diode laser transmitter with a radio frequency (rf) subcarrier that was linearly frequency modulated (chirped amplitude modulation). The diode's output was collected and projected to form an illumination field in the downrange image area. The returned signal was focused onto an array of optoelectronic mixing, metal-semiconductor-metal detectors where it was detected and mixed with a delayed replica of the laser modulation signal that modulates the responsivity of each detector. The output of each detector was an intermediate frequency (IF) signal resulting from the mixing process whose frequency was proportional to the target range. Sampling of the IF signal was done continuously over a period of the rf modulation, and a signal processor calculated the discrete fast Fourier transform over the IF waveform in each pixel to establish the ranges and amplitudes of all scatterers.
In addition to an “overhead” view, frequently it is beneficial to visualize the terrain from a perspective of an observer within the surrounding area. Three-dimensional (3-D) terrain mapping technology has been used to provide terrain visualization, with recent improvements being made in resolution, accuracy, quality, and amount of area covered. Resolution has increased to 1 m or better, and accuracy in absolute (world) coordinates of better than 1 m is available. Nonetheless, the transformation of 3-D maps from low resolutions, appropriate only to large areas, to high resolutions, useful at much smaller scales, requires a new approach to terrain visualization. The shortcomings of prior art terrain visualization techniques include those experienced in visualizing data acquired through sensors, such as light detection and ranging (Lidar) devices, that have been employed for applications such as detecting and tracking people and vehicles. Imaging techniques have also incorporated or adapted methods for detection of surface variations. When imaging smaller-scale scenes, conventional devices tend to under-sample small-scale features, such as foliage, fences, railings, and light poles. These features are difficult to identify and distinguish using the commonly employed terrain visualization techniques discussed above. Yet, it is important for a visualization to accommodate this under-sampling and to differentiate between these under-sampled objects and larger, smoother objects like vehicles.
Tracking vehicles and people is of great importance for military efforts. 3-D maps can provide important context information for such tracking, but visualization at both large and small scales is essential. It is important to not only render particular buildings or road intersections, but to meaningfully render the areas immediately surrounding these sites.
One commonly employed technique for terrain visualization involves the generation of single continuous surface. This technique works well for large-scale natural features, such as mountain ranges or canyons, and urban centers dominated by large buildings. Unfortunately, this technique falls short when used to visualize terrain data at smaller scales; natural features such as bushes and trees can become indistinguishable from small hills or man-made objects.
Another commonly available technique for terrain visualization involves the generation of a “cloud” of points. This technique avoids obscuring the rough nature of small-scale natural features, such as bushes and trees. Unfortunately, these natural features are still difficult to identify because the points generated by large-scale features, such as the ground and buildings, tend to predominate and obscure the points generated by small-scale features. Moreover, large-scale features themselves are inadequately rendered with point clouds because point clouds detract from the solid nature of large-scale features.
Examples of conventional three-dimensional (3-D) terrain maps include maps generated by the Rapid Terrain Visualization (RTV) program, now known as the BuckEye, which is run by the Joint Precision Strike Demonstration Project Office, to provide rapid generation of digital terrain data to support emerging crisis or contingency operations. The RTV program maps from an aircraft using both laser radar (ladar) and interferometric synthetic aperture radar sensors. The ladar has higher resolution and produces cleaner and more accurate maps, so ladar data is preferred. This sensor measures the terrain elevation by scanning the area with a laser beam and measuring the time it takes the light to travel from the aircraft sensor to the ground and back. For the ladar, the program advertises a resolution (post spacing) of 1 m, a vertical accuracy of 15-30 cm, and a horizontal accuracy of 30-50 cm. The maps comprise three pieces of information for each 1-m2 pixel: a backscatter intensity value approximately equivalent to a black and white photograph, the elevation of the first backscatter return from the laser (the highest thing hit), and the elevation of the last return (the lowest thing hit). For most pixels, these two elevations will be the same. But where bushes or trees are present, some of the laser energy will be reflected from the top of the trees as a first-hit return, but some laser energy will also penetrate down to ground to produce the last-hit return. The RTV program also provides a fourth, derived product that is a color image combining the intensity image with hues that are derived from the elevations.
Another currently available three-dimensional imaging software program is “3DEM Software for Terrain Visualization and Flyby Animation,” found at the website http://www.visualizationsoftware.com/software.arcgis/explorer/index.html. According to the website, the program will produce three dimensional terrain scenes and flyby animations from a wide variety of freely available data sources including: USGS Digital Elevation Model (ASCII DEM) files; USGS Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS DEM) files; NASA Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) files; LIDAR Point Cloud (LAS) files; USGS Global 30 Arc Second Elevation Data Set (GTOPO30 DEM) files; NOAA Global Land One-km Base Elevation (GLOBE DEM) files; NASA Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) files. Any topographic data file organized by rows and columns of elevation data XYZ, scattered point topographic data files, and terrain data files can be saved in the following formats for use by other GIS programs: USGS ASCII Digital Elevation Model (*.dem), GeoTiff Graphics File (*.tif), GeoTiff Digital Elevation Model (*.tif), Binary terrain matrix (*.bin), VRML world (*.wrl) and Terragen terrain (*.ter). Also according to the website, 3DEM can merge multiple DEMs to provide high-resolution overhead maps and 3D projections of large surface areas, limited only by the computer's memory. Geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) are shown on all overhead map displays. Both Lat-Lon and UTM coordinates are supported, allowing display and measurement of position to high accuracy. Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver waypoints, routes, and tracks can be read via serial interface and displayed on 3D images and flybys of the terrain, allowing visualization of the path of a trek through the wilderness. 3DEM uses the SGI/Microsoft OpenGL libraries for high speed 3D rendering. 3DEM will render 24 bit color three dimensional projections or red-blue projections requiring red-blue 3D glasses for viewing. 3DEM scenes can be saved in various formats; including Windows Bitmap (*.bmp) and jpeg. 3DEM allows low resolution flyby of DEM landscapes using OpenGL. The path through space is recorded in memory during flight, allowing subsequent creation of a full resolution mpeg animation along the flight path. Real-time flyby animations can be created in the following formats Flyby animation AVI (*.avi) a and Flyby animation MPEG (*.mpg, *.mpeg). 3DEM provides an intuitive user interface, high reliability, and detailed terrain images and flyby animations created from freely available terrain data. 3DEM is a product of Visualization Software LLC by Richard Home. Maps, three-dimensional terrain images and animations, and GPS waypoints and routes produced by the 3DEM computer program are for general visualization purposes only.
Another example of mapping software is disclosed at Http://www.esri.com/softwar-e/arcgis/explorer/index.html. According to the website:                The ArcGIS Explorer is a free downloadable application that offers an easy way to access online GIS content and capabilities. With ArcGIS Explorer, [one] can connect to a variety of free, ready-to-use datasets hosted by ESRI. Combine these with local data or other 2D and 3D Web services to create custom maps and . . . perform spatial analysis. With ArcGIS Explorer, [one] can Fuse your local data with data and services from ArcGIS Server, ArcIMS, and Open Geospatial Consortium WMS to create custom maps . . . [and] [p]erform GIS analysis (e.g., visibility, modeling, proximity search). . . .        
Another terrain software imaging program is the Google-Earth type local search and exploration task. In addition to larger-scale views to get context, one is often interested in areas of a square block or less in the immediate vicinity of one's destination. Such a search is conventionally done with traditional 2-D maps or, in a very select few areas, with pseudo-3-D maps generated by adding 3-D building models to the 2-D maps.
Aside from the above-described need to better images of small-scale features, such as foliage, fences, railings, and light poles, there are many other applications that require smaller size scales. One particularly important application is site surveillance. The objects of site surveillance are often people and the focus of attention is surveillance of a small area around a specific building for a potential intruder. Locations of individual trees and bushes, hedges, small ravines, banks, and other natural features become relevant in determining access routes and potential cover. After an alarm, they are also important in judging intent and determining the best response. Therefore, a visualization technique is required that portrays both small and large features and as well as natural and manmade features. Accordingly, there exists a need for a terrain map with increased accuracy in revealing three dimensional aspects of the object or terrain.